I
The simple past tense
175 Form
A The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding ed to the infinitive: Infinitive: to work Simple past: worked
Verbs ending in e add d only: Infinitive: to love Simple past: loved
The same form is used for all persons:
/ worked you worked he worked etc.
The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did not (didn’t) and the infinitive:
/ did not/didn ’t work
you did not/didn’t work etc.
The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with did + subject * infinitive:
did I work? did you work? etc.
Negative interrogative: did you not/dtdn’t you work? etc.
B Spelling notes
The rules about doubling the final .consonant when adding ing (see 165) apply also when adding «d
admit, admtttfd ;//#. WtpfsA travel, travelled Verbs ending in y following a consonant change the y into i before adding ed:
cany, carried try, tried but y following a vowel does not change: obey, obeyed.
176 Irregular verbs: form
These vary considerably in their simple past form:
Infinitive: to eat, to leave, to see, to speak
Simple past: ate, left, saw, spoke
The simple past form of each irregular verb must therefore be learnt,
but once this is done there is no other difficulty, as irrejwlar verbs ”<ke
regular verbs) have no inflexxms in the past tense.
A list of irregular verbs will be round in chapter 39.
177
A
1
D
18 Past and perfect tenses
Use for the relation of past events
It is used for actions completed in the past at a definite time. It is therefore used:
for a past action when the time is given:
/ met him yesterday. Pasteur died in 1895. or when the time is asked about:
When did you meet him?
or when the action clearly took place at a definite time even though this time is not mentioned:
The train was ten minutes late.
How did you get your present job?
I bought this car in Montreal.
Sometimes the time becomes definite as a result of a question and answer in the present perfect:
Where have you been? -I’ve been to the opera. ~ Did you enjoy it? (See 184 A for further examples.)
The simple past tense is used for an action whose time is not given but which (a) occupied a period of time now terminated, or (b) occurred at a moment in a period of time now terminated. These may be expressed diagrammatically. TS here stands for time of speaking in the present.
(a) (-
+
TS
• •
(b)
I
•I’
Examples of type (a):
He worked in that bank fur four years, (but he does not Work
there now)
She lived in Rome for a long time, (but she is not livjnB Were now) Examples of type (b):
My grandmother once saw Queen Victoria.
Did you ever hear Mana Callas sing?
These wilJ be clearer when compared with the present perfect (see 182-4).
The simple past tense is also used for a past habit:
He always earned an umbrella.
They never drank wine. (For used to indicating past habits, see 162.)
The simple past is used in conditional sentences, type 2 (see 222). (For use of the unreal past after as if, as though, it is time, if only, wish, would sooner/rather, see chapters 28. 29.)
162
The past continuous tense
18 Past and perfet
178 Form
179
A
D
Srrrss: s^d * * — – –
Affirmative
/ was working you were working he/she/it was working we were working you were working they were working
Negative
/ was not working you were not working he/she/it was not working we were not working you were not working they were not working
Interrogative
was I working? were you working was he/she/it wor were we working? were you working were they working
Negative contractions: / wasn’/ working, you weren ’t working etc. Negative interrogative: 1005 he not/wasn’t he working? etc.
See 165 for spelling of the present participle. Remember that some verbs cannot be used in the continuous tenses (see 168).
Main uses of the past continuous tense
The past continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued
some time but whose exact limits are not known and are not import;
It might be expressed diagrammatically. ’ ’ indicates uncert
about times of starting or finishing:
Used without a time expression it can indicate gradual development: // was getting darker. The wind was rising.
Used with a point in time, it expresses an action which began before that time and probably continued after it. At eight he was having breakfast implies that he was in the middle of breakfast at eight, i.e. t he had started it before eight. He had breakfast at eight would imply tl he started it at eight.
If we replace the time expression with a verb in the simple pact tense When I arrived
*
x^^
Tom was talking on Oupko** we convey the idea that the action in the past continuous started befor
163
18 Past and perfect tenses
the- action in the simple past and probably continued after it. The diagram may help to show this relationship. The action in the simple past is indicated by X. Compare this combination with a combination of two simple past tenses, which normally indicates successive actions: When he saw me he put the receiver down.
E We use the continuous tense in descriptions. Note the combination of description (p.ist continuous) with narrative (simple past):
A wood fire was burning on the hearth, and a cat was sleeping in front of it. A girl was playing tht piano and (was) singing softly to herself Suddenly there u>as a knock on the door. The girl stopped playing. The cat uvke up.
80 Other uses of the past continuous
This tense can be used as a past equivalent of the present continuous: A Direct speech: He satd, 7 am living in London.’ Indirect speech: He satd he was living in London.
B Just as the present continuous can be used to express a definite future g arrangement: 1
I’m leaving tonight. I’ve got my plane ticket. I
so the past continuous can express this sort of future in the past: j|
He was busy packing, fur he was leaving that night. (The decision to
leave had been made same time previously.)
C The past continuous with always:
He was always ringing tne up. He was. always working. (See 167 B foi present continuous with always.)
Jl Past continuous as an alternative to the simple past
The past continuous can be used as an alternative to the simple past to indicate a more casual, less deliberate action:.
/ was talking to Tom the other day.
The past continuous here gives the impression that the action was in no way unusual or remarkable. It also tends to remove responsibility from the subject. In the above example it is not clear who started the conversation, and it does not matter. Note the contrast with the simple past tense, / talked to Torn, which indicates that I took the initiative. < Similarly:
From four to six Tom was washing the car. This would indicate that this was a casual, possibly routine action. Compare with:
From four to six Tom washed the car. (implying a deliberate action by Tom)
Note that continuous tenses are used only for apparently continuous uninterrupted actions. If we divide the action up, or say how many
18 Fast and perfect tenses times it happened, we must use the simple past:
/ talked to Tom several times. Tom washed both cars. But we may, of course, use the continuous for apparently parallel actions:
Between one and twt •/ was doing the shopping and walking the dog. This tense is normally used in this way with a lime expression such as today, last night, in the afternoon, which could either be regarded as points in time or as periods. Periods can also be indicated by exact times as shown above.
In questions about how a period w<is spem, the continuous often appears more polite than the simple past: What were you doing before you came here? sounds more polite than What did you do before you came here?
On the other hand, What were you doing in my room? could indicate a feeling that I think y^u had no right to be there, while What did you do in my room? could never give this impression.
The present perfect tense
182 Form and use
A Form
The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of have -f
the past participie: / have worked etc.
The past participle in regular verbs has exactly the same form as the
simple past, i.e. loved, walked etc (see spelling rules, chapter 37).
In irregular verbs, the past participles vary (see 364).
The negative is formed by adding not to the auxiliary.
The interrogative is formed by inverting the auxiliary and si>Sject.
A(*K..;—
Affirmative
/ have worked you have worked he/she/it has worked we have worked you have worked they have worked
Negative
t have net marked you have not worked he/she/it has not worked «* have not worked you have not worked they have not worked
Interrogative
have I worked? have you worked? hat he/she/it worked? have we worked? have you worked? have they worked?
Ne»aVemterro(ptive: to ^ Marked* etc ”
iSSSSPSfiMF ^^jp-SsSstsa-*-*
J6.H
18 Past and perfect tenses
B Use
This tense may be said to be a sort of mixture of present and past It always implies a strong connexion with the present and is chielly used in conversations, letters, newspapers and television and radio reports.
13 The present perfect used with just for a recently completed action
He has iu.-t gone out = He went out a few minutes ago. This is a special use of this tense, just most be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb. This combination is used chiefly in the affirmative, though the interrogative form is possible:
Has he just gone out?
• It is not normally used in the negative.
184 The present perfect used for past actions whose time is not definite
A The present perfect is used for recent actions when the time is not mentioned:
/ have nad the instructions but I don’t understand them. Hare you had breakfast? – No. 1 haven’/ had it yet. Compare with:
/ read the instructions last night, (time given, so simple past) Ihd you hut? breakfast at the hotel? (i.e. before you left the hotel: simple past)
Note possible answers to questions in the present perfect: Have you seen my stamps? ~ Yes, I have/No. I haven’t or Yes, 1 saw them on your desk a minute ago. Have you had breakfast? ~ Yes, I have or No, I haren ’t had it yet or Yes, I had it at seven o ’clock or Yes, I had it with Mary, (time implied)
B Recent actions in the present perfect often have results in the present! Tom has had a bad car crash. (He’s probably still in hospital.) The lift,has broken down. (We have to use the stairs.) I’ve washed the car. (It looks lovely.)
But actions expressed by the simple past without a time expression do
not normally have results in the present:
Tom had a bad crash, (but he’s probably out of hospital now) The lift broke down, (but it’s probably working again now) / washed the car. (but it may be dirty again now)
Actions expressed by the present perfect -t- yet usually have results in
the present:
He hasn i come yet. (so we are still waiting for him)
1M,
18 Rut and perfect tenses C It can also be used for actions whicn occur further back in the put,
provided the connexion with the present is still ””””tafrfd. that» that
• the action could be repeated in the present:
/ have seen wolves in that forest implies that it is still possible to see them, and
John Smith has written a number of short stories implies that John Smith is still alive and can write more. If, however, the wolves have been killed off and John Smith is dead we would say:
/ saw wolves in that forest once/several times or
/ used to see wolves here and
John Smith wrote a number of short stones.
Note also that when we use the present perfect in this way we are not necessarily thinking of any one particular action (the action may have occurred several times) or of the exact time when the action was performed. If we are thinking of one particular action performed at a particular time we are more likely to use the simple past.
•
185 The present perfect used for actions occurring in an incomplete period
A This may be expressed by the following diagram:
I’
TS
Each X represents an action.
TS stands for ’time of speaking’ in the present.
B An incomplete period may be indicated by today or this morning/ afternoon/evening/week/month/year/century etc. Note that the present perfect can be used with this morning only up to about one o’clock, because after that this morning becomes a completed period and actions occurring in it must be put into the simple past: (at II a.m.) Tom has rung up three times this morning already. (at 2 p.m.) Tom rang up three times this morning. Similarly, this afternoon will end at about five o’clock: (at 4 p.m.) / haven’t seen Tom this afternoon. (at 6 p.m.) /didn ’t see Tom this afternoon.
The present perfect used with an incomplete period of time implies that the action happened or didn’t happen at some undefined time during this period:
Have you seen him today? (at any time today) ~ Yes, I have/ Yes, I’ve seen him today, (at some time during the day) But if we know that an action usually happens at a certain time or in a certain pert of our incomplete period we use the simple past tense. If ^ my alarm dock normally goes off at six, I might say at breakfast: •
My alarm clock didn’t go off tins morning. I
,67 •-’
18 Past and perfect tenses
Imagine that the postman normally comes between nine and ten. From nine till ten we will say:
Has the postman come yet/this morning? But after this nine to ten period we will say:
Did the postman come this morning?
We use the past tense here because we are thinking about a complete period of time even though we do not mention it.
Has the postman Did the postman
come this morning? come this morning?
I
I *
I
8.00
9.00
10.00
12.00
|
I this morning *
C lately, recently used with the present perfect also indicate an incomplete period of time.
In the sentences Has he been here lately/recently? and He Hasn ’t been here lately/recently, lately/recently means ’at any time during the last week/month etc.’; and in He has bten ”here recently, recently means ’at some undefined time during the last week/month etc.’ lately is less usual with the affirmative, except for actions covering periods of time:
There have been some changes lately/recently.
He’s had a lot of bad luck lately/recently. recently, used with a simple past tense, means ’a short time ago”:
He left recently » He left a short time ago.
D The present perfect can be used similarly with ever, never, always, occasionally, often, several times etc. and since + a point in time, since + clause, or since, adverb:
1 r>NN: Have you ever fallen off a horse?
TOM: Yes, I’ve fallen off quite often/occasionally. But if Tom’s riding days are over, we would have: ANN: Did you ever fall off a horse? (past tense) TOM: Yes, 1 did occasionally/frequently.
! I haven’t seen him since November.
Hat he written since he left home? We had a letter last week. We haven’t heard since. I’ve since changed my mind = I’ve changed my mind since then.
3 Hie present perfect can be used here for habitual actions: They’re always answered my lettcts. I’ve never been late for work.
Sometimes these appear to be continual rather than repeated actions: Stnce my accident I have written with my left hand. I’ve uvrn xlalTsfi’since my childhood.’ – – •**•
188
18 Put and perfect team
We can then use for + a period of time as an alternative to since + a point in time:
I’ve used my left hand for a month now. I’ve worn glasses for ten years. (See 186.)
4 Note also sentences of this type:
This is the best wine I have ever drunk. This is the worst book 1 have ever read. This is the easiest job I have ever had.
We can use this construction, without ever, with the first, ttu 3tetnd etc. and the only:
It/This is the first time I have seen a mounted band. It is only the second time he has been in a canoe. This is tiu only book he has written.
186 The present perfect used for an acuuii which lasts throughout an incomplete period
Time expressions include for, since (see 187), all day/night/week, all my etc. life, all the time, always, lately, never, recently.
A The action usually begins in the past and continues past the time of speaking in the present:
He has been in the army for two years. (He is stiJJ in the army.) / have smoked since I left school. (1 still smoke.) We have waited all day. (We are still waiting.) He has lived here all his life. (He still lives here.) He has always worked for us. (He still works for us.) This type of action might te expressed by a diagram thus:
I 5
Compare the above sentences with:
He was in the army for two years. (He is not in the army now.) I smoked for six months, (and then stopped smoking) He lived here all his life. (Presumably he is now dead.)
In each of the last three examples we are dealing with a completed
period of time’:
\-
H-
TS ••*
so the simple past tense is used|(see 177 B).
– .^«K
B Sometimes, however, the action finishes at the time & speaking: ANN (on meeting someone): / haven’t seen you for *ges. (but 1 see you now)
This room hasn ’t been cleaned for months, (but we are cleaning it now)
// has been very cold lately but it’s just beginning to get wanutt,
169
J
18 Past and perfect tenses
This type of action could be expressed by a diagram thus:
I 2
C Verbs of knowing, believing and understanding cannot tie osed in the present perfect except as shown in A above:
/ have known him for a long time.
I have never believed their theories.
So recent actions, even when the time is not mentioned; must be expressed by the simple past:
Did you know that he was going to be married? (ff(M>you known
would not be possible) and
Hello! I didn 7 know you were in London. How long ten?you been
here?
think and wonder however can be used as in-183 Dt
7 have sometimes thought that 1 should have emigrated-
1 have often wondered why he didn 7 marry her.
D Note that questions/answers such as:
How long have you been here? -I’ve been here tixtnonths will normally be followed by general inquiries in the wesent perfect about actions occurring within the period mentioned, which is regarded as an incomplete period of time:
I -T.5
because the action of staying, being etc., is not yet finished?
Have you been to the zoo/the theatre/the museums/the aasmo?
Have you enrolled in a school/found a job/met many petipli? The answers will be in the same tense if no time is mentioned, otherwise they will be in the simple past tense:
Yes, I have (been to the too etc.) or
Yes. 1 went there last week.
No, I haven’t enrolled yet or
Yes, 1 enrolled on Monday/this morning.
187 . The present perfect used with for and since
A for is used with a period of time: for six days, for a long time. for used with the simple past tense denotes a terminated period of time:
We lived therefor ten years, (but we don’t live there now) for used with the present perfect denotes a period of time extending
into the present:
We have lived in London for ten years. (and~still live there) for can sometimes be omitted, especially after be. live and wait:
We’ve been here an hour/two days. M
170
B
188
18 Put and perfect tense*
tar (of time) is not used before expressions beginning with all: They’ve worked all night.
B since is used with a point in time and means ’from that point to the time of speaking’. It is always used with a perfect’ tense, except as shown in 188 below.
She has been hen since six o ’clock, (and is still here) We’ve been friends since our schooldays.
C Note that there is a difference between last and the last. Compare:
(a) / have been here since last week (month, year etc.) sod
(b) / have been here for the last week.
last week, in (a), means a point in time about seven days ago. the last week, in (b), means the period of seven days just completed. D since + clause is also possible:
I’ve worked here since I left school ’ •’
and ever since (adverb):
He had a ted fall last year and has been off work ever since.
I it is + period + since + past or perfect tense We can say:
// is three years since I (last) saw Bill or It is.three yean since I have seen Bill. I last saw Bill three yean ago or / haven’t seen Bill for three yean. It is two months since Tom (last) smoked a cigarette or // is two months since Tom has smoked a cigarette. He last smoked a cigarette two months ago or He hasn ’t smoked a cigarette for two months. We can use the it ia … since construction without the adverb last:
It is two years since he left the country. This, however, is replaceable only by: He left the country two years ago. •
We could not use a negative present perfect here as in the sentence about Bill above. He hasn’t been (living) in this country for the last two yean is possible but isn’t an exact equivalent ol He left two yean ago. This construction can be used in the past:
He invited me to go riding with him. But it was two yean since I had ridden a horse. (I hadn’t ridden a horse for two years previous to the invitation so I wasn’t sure that I would enjoy it.)
! present perfect and
189 sFin$e rp£?mPleS °f ”* USe 0/ the ***** I***** and
A %Z^^**^^:’W^~**m,
?H1UP: I’ve always lived in a houseboat. I was born in one.
171
18 Past and perfect tenses
/ thought you were still on holiday. When did you get back? ~ I came
back last week.
Has your term started yet? – Yes, it started on Monday.
B Note that a conversation about a past action often begins with a
question and answer in the present perfect, but normally continues in the simple past, even when no time is given. This is because the action first mentioned has now become definite in the minds of the speakers:
Where have you been? -I’ve been to the cinema. –
What did you see?AVkat was the film? ~ (I saw) ’Amadeus’. ~
Did you like it?
HUSBAND: Where have you been?
WIFE: I’ve been at Ike sales.
HUSBAND: What have you bought?/What did you buy?
wiFfc: / havit bought/I bought you some yellow pyjamas.
HUSBAND: Why aid you buy yellow? 1 hate yellow.
C The present perfect is often used in newspapers and broadcasts to introduce an action which will then be described in the simple past tense. The time of the action is very often given in the second sentence:
Thirty thousand pounds’ worth of jewellery has been stolen from Jonathan Wild and Company, the jewellers. The thieves broke into the,flat above some time during Sunday night and entered the shop by cutting a hole in the ceiling.
But even if the time of the action is not given the past tense will normally be used in the second sentence:
Two prisoners have escaped from Dartmoor. They used a ladder which had been left behind by some workmen, climbed a twenty-foot wall and got away tn a stolen car.
D The present perfect is often used in letters:
/ am sony I haien ’t written before but I’ve been very busy lately as Tom has been away.
We have carefully considered the report which you sent us on
26 April, and have decided to take the following action.
The present perfect continuous tense
190 Form
This tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb to be +
the present participle:
Affirmative: / have been working, he has been working etc. Negative: / have not/haven’t been working etc. Interrogative: have I been working? etc. Negative interrogative: have I not/liave» ’t I been working? etc.
172
191 Use
192
A
£M£ is used for”action which <**«> * the
I Is
or has only just finished:
18 Past and perfect tensec
the past and is still
I’ve been waiting for an hour and he still hasn ’t turned up.
I’m so sorry I’m late. Have you been waiting long? Remember that a number of verbs are not normally used in the continuous form (see 168), but that some of these can be used in this form in certain cases (see 169-71). We can therefore say:
Tom has been seeing about a work permit for you.
She has been having a tooth out.
I’ve been thinking it over.
I’ve been hearing all about his operation.
In addition, the verb want is often used in this tense, and wtsh is also possible:
Thank you so much for the binoculars. I’ve been wanting a pair for ages.
The present perfect continuous tense does not exist in the passive. The nearest passive equivalent of a sentence such as They have been repairing the road would normally be The road has been repaired lately (present perfect passive), which is not exactly the same thing.
! Comparison of the present perfect simple and continuous i An action which began in the. past and is still continuing or has only just finished can, with certain verbs, be expressed by either the present perfect simple or the present perfect continuous. Verbs which can be used in this way include expect, hope, learn, lie, live, look, rain, sleep, sit, snow, stand, stay, study, teach, wait, want, work: How long have you learnt English? How long have you been learning English ? He has slept for ten hours. He has been sleeping for ten hours. It has snowed for a long time. It has been snowing for a long time.
This is not of course possible with verbs which are not used in the continuous forms (see 168), i.e. the present perfect continuous could not replace the simple present perfect in the following examples: \
They’ve always had a big garden. )
How long have you known that? He’s jten at hospital since his accident.
Notice al&o that the present perfect continuous can be used with or without a time phrase. In this way it differs from the simple present
173
kl
193
18 Past and perfert tenses
perfect, which can only express this type of action if a time phrase is added such as for six days, since June, never. When used without a time expression of this kind, the simple present perfect refers to a single completed action.
A repeated action in the simple present perfect can sometimes be expressed as a continuous action by the present perfect continuous:
I’ve written six letters since breakfast.
I’ve been writing letters since breakfast.
I have knocked five times. I don’t think anyone’s in.
I’ve been knocking. I don’t think anybody’s in. Note that the present perfect continuous expresses an action which is apparently uninterrupted; we do not use it when we mention the number of times a thing has been done or the number of things that have been done.
There is. however, a difference between a single action in the simple present perfect and an action in the present perfect continuous:
(a) I’ve polished the car means that this job has been completed.
(b) I’ve been polishing the car means ’this is how I’ve spent the last hour’. It does not necessarily mean that the job is completed.
Note also that a single action in the present perfect continuous continues up to the time of speaking, or nearly up to this time:
He’s been taking photos (he’s probably still carrying his camera) but He has taken photos. (This action may or may not be very recent.)
Some more examples of the present perfect and the present perfect continuous
A: / haven’t seen your brother lately. Has he gone away?
B: Yes, he ’s/he has been sent to America.
A: When did he go?
B: He went last month.
A: Have you had any letters from him?
B: / haven’t, but his wife has been hearing from him regularly.
A: Does she intend to go out and join him?
B: They’ve been thinking about it but haven’t quite decided yet.
Unfortunately they’ve had a lot of expense lately and perhaps haven’t
got the money for her fare.
TOM:, What have you done with my knife? (Where have you put it?) ANN: / put it back in your drawer.
TOM (taking it out): But what have you been doing with it? The blade’s all twisted! Have you been using it to open tins?
A: Do you see those people on that little sandy island? They’ve been waving handkerchiefs for the last half hour. I wonder why. B: Tkey need help. The tide’s coming in and very soon that little island will be under water. Have you been sitting here calmly and doing nothing to help them?
A: I’ve never been here before. I didn’t know about the tides.
] 71
18 Past and perfect tenses
The past perfect tense
194 Form and use A Form
This tense is formed with had and the past participle: Affirmative: / had/I’d worked etc. Negative: / had not/hadn ’t worked etc. Interrogative: had I worked? etc. Negative interrogative: had I not/hadn’t I worked? etc. B Use
1 The past perfect is the past equivalent of the present perfect. Present: Ann has just left. If you hurry you’ll catch her. (See 183.) Past: When I arrived Ann had just left. Present: I’ve lost my case. (See 184.) Past: He had lost his case and had to borrow Tom’s pyjamas. Unlike the present perfect the past perfect is not restricted to actions whose time is not mentioned. We could therefore say:
He had left his case on the 4.40 train.
2 The present perfect can be used with since/for/always etc. for an action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished (see 186). The past perfect can be used similarly for an action which began before the time of speaking in the past, and
(a) was still continuing at that time or
(b) stopped at that time or just before it.
But note that the past perfect can also be used:
(c) for an action which stopped some time before the time of speaking. Examples of types (a), (b) and (c) are given below:
(a) Bill was in uniform when I met him. He had been a soldier for ten years/since he was seventeen, and planned to stay in the army till he was thirty.
Ann had lived in a cottage-for sixty years/ever since she was born, and had no wish to move to a tower block. (The past perfect continuous tense had been living would also be possible here.)
(b) The old oak tree, which had stood in the churchyard for 300 years/since before the church was built, suddenly crashed to the ground. (The past perfect continuous tense had been standing would also be possible here.) ’ Peter, who had waited for an hour/since ten o ’clock, was very angry with his sister when she eventually turned up. (Had been waiting would also be possible.)
(c) He had served in the army for ten years; then he retired and
married. His children were now at school.
Here we cannot use either since or the past perfect continuous. Note y also that the past perfect here has no present perfect equivalent. If we -I put the last verb in this sentence into the present tense the other jjjjf
I
175
18 Past and prilcct lensrs
I
A
i
i „,„
1
B
i
A
I ;
-H3
B
TS
• • • • • A
tenses will change to the simple past.
He served in the army for ten years; then retired and married. His
children are now at school.
These structures are shown below in diagram form, with the line AB for the action in the past perfect, and TS for the time of speaking in the past:
(b)
. • *>3 (c) | 1
A B
(See also 196 for the use of the past perfect in indirect speech.)
3 The past perfect is also the past equivalent of the simple past tense, and is used when the narrator or subject looks back on ea’rlier action from a certain point in the past:
Tom was 23 when our story begins. His father had died five years before and since then Tom had lived alone. His father had advised him not to get married till he was 35, and Tom intended to follow this advice.
I had just poured myself a glass of beer when the phone rang. When I came back from answering it the glass was empty. Somebody had drunk the beer or thrown it away.
He met her in Paris in 1977. He had last seen her ten years before. Her hair had been grey then; now it was white. Or He met her in 1967 and again ten years later. Her hair, which had been grey at their first meeting, was now white.
But if we merely give the events in the order in which they occurred no past perfect tense is necessary:
Tom’s father died when Tom was eighteen. Before he died he advised Tom not to marry till he was 35, and Tom at 23 still intended to follow this advice.
He met her first in 1967 when her hair was grey. He nut her again in 1977/He didn ’t meet her again till 1977. Her hair was now white. There is no looking back in the above two examples so no reason for a past perfect.
Note the difference of meaning in the following examples: She heard voices and realized that there were three people in the next room:
She saw empty glasses and cups and realized that three people had been in the room. (They were no longer there.) He arrived at 2.30 and was dd to wait in the VIP lounge. He arrived at 2.30. He had been told to wait in the VIP lounge. In the third example he received his instructions after his arrival. In the fourth he received” them before arrival, possibly before the journey started.
176
B
18 Past and perfect tenses
195 Past and past perfect tenses in time clauses A Clauses with when
When one past action follows another. He called her a liar. She smacked his face, we can combine them by using when and two simple past tenses provided that it is dear from the sense that the second action followed the first and that they did not happen simultaneously:
When he called her a liar she smacked his face. When two simple past tenses are used in this way there is usually the idea that the first action led to the second and that the second followed the first very closely:
When he opened the window the bird flew out.
When the play ended the audience went home.
When he died he was given a state funeral.
The past perfect is used after when when we wish to emphasize that the first action was completed before the second one started:
When he had shut the window we opened the door of UK cage. (We waited for the window to be quite shut before opening the cage.) When she had sung her song she sat down. (’When she sang her song she sat down’ might give the impression that she sang seated.)
When he had seen all the pictures he said he was ready to leave. (When he had finished looking at them . . .) Compare with:
Whtn he saw all the pictures he expressed amazement that one man should have painted so many. (Immediately he saw them he said this.)
The past perfect can be used similarly with as soon as, the moment, immediately. (For as as a time conjunction, see 332.) t The past perfect can be used with till/until and before to emphasize the completion or expected completion of an action. But note that in till/until + past perfect + simple past combinations the simple past action may precede the past perfect action; and in before + past perfect + simple past combinations the simple past action will always precede the past perfect action: |g
He refused logo till he had seen all the pictures. J|
He did not wait till we had finished our meal. gUifl
Before we had finished our meal he ordered us back to work. ^^M
Before we had walked ten miles he complained of sore feet. ^^H
Past perfect tenses in both time clause and main clause are also ®RMI
possible: ^
It was a very expensive town. Before we had been here a week we had • spent all our money. B
after is normally followed by a perfect tense:
After the will had been nod there wen angry exclamations.
D
18 Past and perfect tenses
We have already stated (see 194) that actions viewed in retrospect from a point in the past are expressed by the past perfect tense. If we have two such actions:
He had been to school but he had learnt nothing then, so was now
illiterate
and wish to combine them with a time conjunction, we can use when etc. with two past perfect tenses.
When hi’ had bttn at school he had learnt nothing, so he was now
illiterate.
But it is more usual to put the verb in the time clause into the simple past:
U’hrn he was at school he had learnt nothing. … Similarly:
He had stayed in his father’s firm till his father died. Then he had
started his own business and was now a very successful man.
Verbs of knowing, understanding etc. are not normally used in. the past perfect tense in time clauses except when accompanied by an expression denoting a period of time:
\\~hen she had known me for a year she invited me to tea but
When 1 knew the work of one department thoroughly I was moved to
the next department or As noon as I knew etc. Compare with:
When I had learnt the work of one department I was moved. m
Time clauses containing past perfect tenses can be combined with a jm main verb in the conditional tense, but this is chiefly found in indirect W speech, and some examples will be given in the next paragraph.
196 Use of the past perfect in indirect speech
« r* . ’ … –
Present perfect tenses in direct speech become past perfect tenses in indirect speech provided the introductory verb is in the past tense: He said. ’I’ve been in England for ten years’ » He said that he had been in England for ten years. Hf said, ’When you ’ve worked for a year you ’II get a rise’ * He said that when I’d worked for a year I’d get a rise. She said, 7’// lend you the book as soon as I have read it myself She said she ’d lend me the book as soon as she ’d read it herself.
Simple past tenses in direct speech usually change similarly:
He said. 7 knew her well’ –
He said that he had known her well.
But there are a number of cases where past tenses remain unchanged (see 309-10).
’For thf pass I perfect after if (conditional), see 223; after wish and if only, vr 3W). after a* if, M though, fee 292.)
178
B
18 Past and perfect tenses
The past perfect continuous tense
197 Form and use .A Form
This tense is formed with had been + the present participle. It is therefore the same for all persons:
/ had/I’d been working
they had not/hadn ’t been working
had you been working?
had you not/hadn’t you been working?
It is not used with verbs which are not used in the continuous forms, except with want and sometimes wish:
The boy was delighted with his new knife. He had been wanting one for a long time.
Note that this tense has no passive form, The .v arest passive equivalent of a sentence sue!] as They had ban faking apples would be Apples had been picked, which is not the same thing (see B3 below).
B Use
The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past perfect as the present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect (see 192)
1 When the action began before the time of speaking in the past, and continued up to that time, or stopped just before it, we can often use either form (see 192 A):
// was now six and he was tired because he had worked since dawn ~
It was now six and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.
2 A repeated action in the past perfect can sometimes be expressed as a continuous action by the past perfect continuous (see 192 B): He had tried five times to get her on the phone. He had been trying to get her on the phone.
3 But there is a difference between a single action in the simple past perfect and an action in the past perfect continuous (see 192 C): By six o ’clock he had repaired the engine. (This job had been completed.) . i
He had been repairing the engine tells us how he had spent the previous ,^J hour/half hour etc. It does not teil us whether or not the job was ••
completed. ^H
Another difference is that an action in the present perfect continuous ^Hj continues up to, or beyond, the time of speaking in the past. An action j^B in the past perfect may occur shortly before the time of speaking, but jj^H, there could be quite a long interval between them: ^B:’
He had been painting the door. (The paint was probabh/ suti wet.) ”1U
He had painted the door. (Perhaps recently, perhaps some time ago.) 1
179 matJ^