For noun plurals, see also 12.
For verb forms, see also 165,172, 175.
354 Introduction
Vowels are: a e i o u
Consonants are: bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz A suffix is a group of letters added to the end of a word: btauty, beautiful (ful is the suffix.)
355 Doubling the consonant
A Words of one syllable having one vowel and ending in a single consonant double the consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel: hit + ing <• kitting but keep, keeping (two vowels) knit + td – knitted kelp, helped (two consonants)
run + er •• runner love, lover (ending in a vowel)
qu here is considered as one consonant: quit, quitting. When the final consonant is w, x or y it does not double: row + ed » rowed box + ing = boxing
B Two- or three-syllable words ending in a single consonant following a
single vowel double the final consonant when the stress falls on the last
syllable. (The stressed syllable «s in bold type.)
acquit + ed – acquitted but murmur + ed – murmured begin + er = beginner answer + er » answerer
deter + ed « deterred orbit + ing – orbiting
recur + ing » recurring
focus + ed, however, can be spelt focused otfocussed and bias + ed can
be spelt biased or biassed.
C The final consonant of handicap, kidnap, worship is also doubled: handicap, handicapped worship, worshipped kidnap, kidnapped
D Words ending in 1 following a single vowel or two vowels pronounced separately usually double the 1:
appal, appalled duel, duellist repel, repellent
cruel, cruelly model, modelling quarrel, quarrelling
dial, dialled refuel, refuelled signal, signalled
?f”*^i»l«
37 Spelling rules
6 Omission of a final e
A Words ending in e following a consonant drop the e before a suffix beginning with a vowel:
believe + tr = believer
love + ing = loving
move + able = movable
But dye and singe keep their final e before ing to avoid confusion with die and sing:
dye. dyeing singe, singeing age keeps its e before ing except in American English:
age, ageing
likable can also be spelt likeable. Words ending in ce or ge sometimes retain the e. See 357.
J A final e is retained before a suffix beginning with a consonant:
engage, engagement fortunate, fortunately
hope, hopeful immediate, immediately
sincere, sincerely But the e in abie/ible is dropped in the adverb form:
comfortable, comfortably incredible, incredibly |
Th*» Final e i<i al«» <|MI|I[K”| in lf*> following vvir’ls J
mgui, tirgumtnl Jut, duly jjjjjjl
judge, judgement or judgment true, truly .^..^^1
whoU, wholly (notice the double 1 here) ggjj^^H
] Words ending in ee do not drop an e before a suffix: ^g|^^^^H agree, agreed, agreeing, agreement ^^^^^^^H
foresee, foreseeing, foreseeable ^^^^^^^H
’ Words ending in ce and ge P
. Words ending in ce or ge retain the e before a suffix beginning with a, o or u:
courage, courageous peace, peaceful
manage, manageable replace, replaceable
outrajft, tnitroKttiu* Irate, traceable
This is done to avoid changes in pronunciation, because c and g are generally pronounced soft before e and i, but hard before a, o or u.
Words ending in ce change the e to i before ous: grace, gracious space, spacious
malice, malicious vice, vicious
358 The suffix ful
3:? Spelling rules
When fall is added to a word the second 1 is dropped:
beauty + full – beautiful (but note adverb form beautifully) use + full ” useful (but note adverb form usefully) If the word to which the suffix is added ends in U the second ] js dropped here also: skill + full » skilful. Note full* fill -fulfil.
359 Words ending in y
Words ending in y following a consonant change the y to i before any suffix except ing:
carry + ed = carried but carry + ing » carrying
happy + ly * happily hurry + ing *= hurrying
sunny + er » sunnier y following a vowel does not change:
obey + ed – obeyed play -t- er = player For plural forms of nouns, see 12.
fiftO ieamlei
The normal rule is that i comes before e except after c: believe, sieve but deceive, receipt
There are however the following exceptions:
beige feint heir reign their
counterfeit foreign inveigh rein -veil
deign forfeit inveigle seize vein
eiderdown freight leisure skein weigh
eight heifer neigh sleigh weigh*
either height neighbour sleight weir
feign heinous neither surfeit weird
361 Hyphens
A Compound words are formed by linking two or more words to make one unit. We can write the compound:
(a) as one word: bystander, hairdresser, teacup
(b) as two or more words: amusement arcade, post office
(c) with a hyphen: launching-pad. lay-by, tooth-brush
It is impossible in most cases to give a firm rule on when a hyphen should be used. When a compound has become familiar through constant use, the hyphen can be omitted: layby, toothbrush. This, however, does not always happen and a native English writer is (fuu
•capable of writing toothbrush, tooth brush or tooth-brush at different
’times
37 Spelling rules
If the compound is formed of monosyllables, it is more likely to be wntten as one word In cases of doubt it is better to omit hyphens or consult a modern dictionary.
Hyphens are necessary:
(a) when pronunciation or meaning might be unclear without them: co-operate re-cover (” cover again)
(b) when words form a compound in a particular sentence: a do-it-yourself shop
a go-as-you-please railway ticket
(c) in adjective phrases dealing with age, size, weight and duration
of time:
a five-year-old child a ten-ton vehicle
a six-foot wait a five-minute interval
Note that the compound is not in the plural form: no 8. Adverb/participle Compounds used as adjectives are commonly hyphenated, especially when there is a danger of misunderstanding:
low-ftying aircraft ifuifk dissolving *ugar
Hyphens are used in a temporal) way ’<• divide a word at the end of a UIK.. Ft* LvujKji must be made at a natui* hr^ak in tUc word, i.e. ”-^tw^en syllables:
dis-couraged toolt-ing ,ntrr val 1JU
A moncKkyuabtc i.ktiid not be divided. _ ^1
38 Phrasal verbs
362 Introduction
A In modern English it is very usual to place prepositions or adverbs after certain verbs so as to obtain a variety of meanings:
give away – give to someone/anyone
give up – abandon (a habit or attempt)
look after » take care of
look for – search for, seek
look out » beware
The student need not try to decide whether the combination is verb + preposition or verb + adverb, but should consider the expression as a whole.
It is also important to learn whether the combination is transitive (i.e. requires an object) or intransitive (i.e. cannot have an object): look for is transitive: I am looking for my passport. look out is intransitive: Look out! This ice isn’t safe! Each of the combinations given in the following pages will be marked ’tr’ (- transitive) or ’intr’ (= intransitive), and the examples of the use of each will help to emphasize this distinction. Note that it is possible for a combination to have two or more different meanings, and to be transitive in one/some of these and intransitive in others. For example, take off can mean ’remove’. It is then a transitive expression: He took off his hat.
take off can also mean ’rise from the ground’ (used of aircraft). Here it is intransitive:
The plane took off at ten o ’clock. B Transitive expressions: the position of the object
Noun objects are usually placed at the end of these expressions:
7 am looking for my glasses.
With some expressions, however, they can be placed either at the end or immediately after the verb, i.e. before the short word. We can say:
He took off his coat or He took his coat off. Pronoun objects are sometimes placed at the end’of the expression:
/ am looking for them. But they are more often placed immediately after the verb:
He took it off.
This position is usual before the following short words: up, down, in, out, away, off and on (except when used in the expression call on visit).
314
315
38 Phrasal verbs
Examples given of the use of each expression wfl show all possible positions of noun or pronoun objects in the following way:
I’ll giv* this old coat away, (give away this old coat/give it away) i.e. with this expression the noun object can come before or after the away; the pronoun object must come before the away. When only one example is given the student may assume that the pronoun object has the same position as the noun object.
When these expressions are followed by a verb object the gerund form of the verb is used:
He kept on blowing his horn.
Where gerunds are usual this will be shown by examples. Note that some expressions can be followed by an infinitive:
It is up to you to decide this for yourself.
Some of the younger members called on the minister to resign.
The lecturer set out to show that most illnesses were avoidable. go on can be followed by either infinitive or gerund but there is a considerable difference in meaning. See 270 A.
363 Verb + preposition/adverb combinations account
account for (tr) = give a good reason tor, explain satisfactorily (some action or expenditure). ’
A treasurer must account for the money he spends. He has behaved in the most extraordinary way; I can’t account {or his actions at all/1 can’(account for his behaving like that. allow
allow for (tr) = make provision in advance for, take into account (usually som« additional requirement, expenditure, delay etc.):
It is 800 kilometres and I drive at 100 k.p.h., so I’ll be then in eight
hours. ~ But you ’II have to allow for delays going through towns
and for stops for refuelling.
Allowing for depreciation teur car should be worth £2,000 this time
nest year.
answer
anawer back (intr), answer somebody back «• answer a reproof impudently:
FATHER: Why wen you so late last night? You weren’t in till 2 a.m.
SON: You should have teen asleep.
FATHER: Don’t answer me back. Answer my question.
aak alter/for somebody – ask for news of:
/ nut Tom at the party; he asked after you. (asked how you were/how you were getting on)
316
38 Phrasal verb, ask for
(a) = ask to speak to:
Go to the office and ask for my secretary.
(b) = request, demand:
The men asked for more pay and shorter hours. ask someone in (object before in) = invite him to enter the house: He didn ’t ask me in; he kept me standing at the door white he nod the message.
ask someone out (object before out) – invite someone to an entertainment or to a meal (usually in a public place):
She had a lot of friends and was usually asked out in the evenings,
so she seldom spent an evening at home. back
back away (intr) « step or move back slowly (because confronted by some danger or unpleasantness):
When he took a gun out everyone backed away nervously. back out (intr) = withdraw (from some joint action previously agreed on), discontinue or refuse to provide previously promised help or support: ,
He agreed to help but backed out when he found how difficult it was. back somebody up = support morally or verbally:
The headmaster never backed up his staff, (bached them up) If a , parent complained about a teacher he assumed that the teacher was in the wrong. be
be against (tr) «= be opposed to (often used with gerund): I’m for doing nothing till the police arrive ./I’m against doing anything til! the police arrive.
be away (intr) » be away from home/this place for at least a night, be back (intr) = have returned after a long or short absence: / want to see Mrs Pitt. Is she in? ~ No, I’m afraid she’s out at the moment or No, I’m afraid she’s away for the weekend. ~ When will she be back? ~ She ’II be back in half an hour/next week. be for (tr) – be in favour of (often used with gerund). be in (intr) » be at home/in this bulding.
be in for (tr) – be about to encounter (usually something unpleasant): Did you listen to the weather forecast? I’m afraid we’re in for a bumpy flight.
If you think that the work is going to be easy you ’re in for a shock. be over (intr) * be finished:
The storm is over now; we can go on.
be out (intr) – be away from home/from this building for a short
time – not overnight.
be up (intr) * be out of bed:
Don’t expect her to answer the doorbell at eight o ’clock on Sunday morning. She won’t be up.
317
38 Phrasal verbs
be up to (tr) – be physically or intellectually strong enough (to perform a certain action). The object is usually it, though a gerund is
possible:
After his illness the Minister continued in office though he was no
longer up to the work/up to doing the work.
be up to something/some mischief/some trick/no good – be occupied or busy with some mischievous act: «
Don’t trust him; he is up to something/some trick.
The boys are very quiet. I wonder what they art up to. Note that the object of up to here is always some very indefinite expression such as these given above. It is never used with a particular
action.
it is up to someone (often followed by an infinitive) – it is his
responsibility or duty:
It is up to the government to take action on violence.
I have helped you as much as 1 can. Now it is up to you. (You must
continue by your own efforts.)
bear
bear out (tr) = confirm:
T/its report bears out my theory, (bears my theory out/bears it out)
bear up (intr) = support bad news bravely, hide feelings of grief: The news of her death was a great shock tv him but he bore up bravely and none of us realiud how much he felt it.
blow
blow out (tr) * extinguish (a flame) by blowing:
The wind blew out the candle, (blew the candle out/blew it out) blow up (tr or intr)
(a) = destroy by explosion, explode, be destroyed:
They blew up the bridges so that the enemy couldn ’t follow them. (blew the bridges up/blew them up) Just as we got to the bridge it blew up.
(b) = fill with air, inflate, pump up:
The children blew up their balloons and threw them into the air. (blew the balloons up/blew them up)
boil
boil away (intr) = be boiled until all (the liquid) has evaporated:
/ put the kettle on the gas ring and then went away and forgot about
it. When I returned, the water had all boiled away and the flame had
burnt a hole in the kettle.
boil over (intr) = to rise and flow over the sides of the container (used only of hot liquids):
The milk boiled over and there was a horrible smell of burning.
318
38 Phrasal verbs break
break down figures « take a total and sub-divide it under various
headings so as to give additional information:
You say that 10,000 people use this library. Could you break that down into age-groups? (say how many of these are under 25, over
50 etc.)
break down a door etc. « cause to collapse by using force:
The firemen had to break down the door to get into the burning house, (break the door down/break it down)
break down (intr) » collapse, cease to function properly, owing to
some fault or weakness:
(a) Used of people, it normally implies a temporary emotional collapse: He broke down when telling me about his son’s tragic death. (He was overcome by his sorrow; he wept.)
(b) It can express collapse of mental resistance:
At first he refused to admit his guilt but when he was shown the evidence he broke down and confessed.
(c) When used of health it implies a serious physical collapse:
After years of overwork his health broke down and he had to retire.
(d) It is very often used of machines:
The car broke down when we were driving through the desert and it took us two days to repair it.
(e) It can be used of negotiations:
The negotiations broke down (were discontinued) because neither side would compromise. break in (intr), break into (tr)
(a) = enter by force:
Thieves broke in and stole the silver.
The house was broken into when the owner was on holiday.
(b) = interrupt someone by some sudden remark:
/ was telling them about my travels when he broke in with a story of his own.
break in (a young horse/pony etc.) (tr) = train him for use:
You cannot ride or drive a horse safely before he has been broken in. break off (tr or intr) = detach or become detached:
He took a bar of chocolate and broke off a bit. (broke a bit off/broke it off)
A piece of rock broke off and fell into the pool at the foot of the cliff. break off (tr) = terminate (used of agreements or negotiations):
Ann has broken off her engagement to Tom. (broken her
engagement off/broken it off) break off (intr) • stop talking suddenly, interrupt oneself:
They were in the middle of an argument but broke off when someone
came into the room. break out (intr) (a) • begin (used of evils such as wars, epidemics, fires etc.):
War broke out on 4 August.
(b)
319