34 Reason, result, concern, compuuon, tu*
338 Clauses of reason and result/cause
Except for the type shown in A2 and A3 below, both these clauses can be introduced by as or because. But as is safer for clauses of reason (see A below) and because is safer for clauses of result/cause (see B).
A Clauses of reason
1 Introduced by as/because/since:
We camped there as/because/since it was too dark to go on. As/Because/Since it was too dark to go on, we camped then. ,
2 ’in view of the fact that’ can be expressed by as/since/seeing that, but not because:
As/Since/Seeing that you are here, you may as well give me a hand. As/Since/Seeing that Tent knows French, he’d better do the talking.
3 Where as/since/seeing that refers to a statement previously made or understood, it is replaceable by if:
As/Since/Seeing that/If you don’/ like Bill, why did you invite him? Note the use of if so:
/ hope Bill won ’I come. ~ If so (= If you hope he won’t come),
why did you invite him? For if + so/not, see 347.
B Clauses of .result /cause (see also 339) are introduced by because or as: The fuse blew because we had overloaded the circuit. He was angry because we were late.
As it froze hard that night there was ice everywhere next day. As the soup was very salty we were thirsty afterwards.
C These combinations could also be expressed by two main clauses joined
by so:
It was too dark to go on, so we camped there.
You are here, so you may as well give me a hand.
It frou hard that night, so there was ice everywhere next day.
therefore can also be used, but is normal only in fairly formal
sentences:
The Finnish delegate has not yet arrived. We are there/ore postponing/We have there/ore decided to postpone/Therefore we are postponing the.meeting. (Notice possible positions of therefore.)
–. – -••^•«i»uu, OO
339 Clauses of result with such/so . . . that
A such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun:
They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house. He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.
B so is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by their nouns:
The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up. His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep. Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it. But such is never used before much and many, so so is used even when much and many are followed by nouns:
There was so much dust that we couldn ’t see what was happening. So many people complained that they took the programme off. C Note that such + a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so +
adjective + a + noun, so that ’such a good man’ is replaceable by ’so good a man’. This is only possible when a noun is preceded by a/an. It is not a very usual form but may be met in literature. Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed by the inverted form of the verb (see 45): So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.
340 Clauses of concession
These are introduced by although, though (see 327, 329), even though, even if, no matter, however (see 85) and sometimes by whatever, as is also possible, but only in the adjective + as -t- be construction.
Although/Though/Even though/Even if you don’t like him you can still be polite.
No matter what you do, don’t touch this switch.
However rich people are, they always seem anxious to make more
money.
However carefully you drive, you will probably have an accident eventually.
Whatever you do, don’/ tell him that I told you this.
Patient as he was, he had no intention of waiting for three hours.
(though he was patient) may -t- infinitive can be used in hypothetical cases:
However frightened you may be yourself, you must remain
outwardly calm. may can also imply ’I accept the fact that’:
But he’s your brother! – He may be my brother but 1 don’t trust him!
But may used in this way is part of another main clause, not a clause of concession.
34 Reason, result, concession, comparison, time
should + infinitive can be used after even if just as it can after if in conditional sentences, to express the idea that the action expressed by the infinitive is not very likely to take place:
Even if he should find out he won’t do anything about it.
341 Clauses of comparison
A Comparisons with adjectives and finite verbs (see also 20-2):
It ’s darker today than it was yesterday.
He doesn ’t pay as much tax as we do/as us.
He spends more than he earns. Note that + adjective, a colloquial form:
Will it cost £100? – No, it won’/ cost as much as (all) that. It won’t
be (all) that expensive. (It won’t be as expensive as that.) that + adjective is sometimes used colloquially to mean very.
B Comparisons with adverbs and finite verbs (see also 31-4): He didn ’t play as well as we expected/as well as you (did). He sings more loudly than anyone I’ve ever heard/than anyone else (does). You work hf rder than he does/than him/than I did at your age.
C Comparisons with adjectives and infinitives or gerunds
Often either can be used, but the infinitive is more usual for a particular action, and gerunds are more usual for general statements (see also E below):
It’s sometimes as cheap to buy a new one as (it is) (to) repair the
old one.
Buying a new one is sometimes as cheap as repairing the old one.
He found that lying on the beach was just as bonng as sitting in
his office or
He found lying on the beach just as bonng as sitting etc. (The
infinitive would be less usual here.)
He thinks it (is) safer to dnve himself than (to) let me drive.
He thinks that driving himself is safer than letting me drive.
It will soon be more difficult to get a visa than it is now.
Getting a visa will soon be more difficult than it is now.
D
In comparisons of the type shown in C above, if we have an infinitive before as/than we will usually have an infinitive (not a gerund) after it. Similarly, if we have a gerund before as/than we will normally have a gerund (not an infinitive) after it. See examples above. But if we have a finite verb + this/that/which before as/than we can have a gerund after it. An infinitive is possible but would be much less usual:
/’// deliver it by hand; this will be cheaper than posting it.
He-cleaned his shoes, which was better than doing nothing.
300
34 Reason, result, concession, comparison, time
342
A
B
, «.>U)MU iac*n, tu
E Infinitives are used with would rather/sooner (see 297-8): Most people would rather work than starve. I would resign rather than accept kirn as a partner.
542 Time clauses
A These are introduced by conjunctions of time such as:
after immediately till/until
as no sooner. . . than when
as soon as since whenever
before the sooner while hardly. . . when
They can also be introduced by the minute, the moment. For examples with when, as, while, see 331-3. For examples with before, see 195 B.
B Remember that we do not use a future form, or a conditional tense, in a time clause.
1 • Each of the following future forms becomes a present tense when we put it in a time clause.
Future simple:
You ’II be back soon. I’ll stay till then. <= I’ll stay till you get back. be going to:
The parachutist is going to jump. Soon after he jumps his parachute will open.
The present continuous, used as a future form, and the future continuous:
He ’$ arriving/He ’II be arriving at six but When he arrives he ’II tell us all about the match. Before he arrives I’ll give the children their tea. But the continuous tense can, of course, be used in time clauses when it indicates a continuous action:
Peter and John will be playing/are playing/are going to play tennis tonight. While they are playing (during this time) we’II go to the beach.
The future perfect changes to the present perfect, and the future perfect continuous changes to the present perfect continuous:
/’// have finished in the bathroom in a few minutes.
The moment/As soon as I have finished 1 ’11 give you a call. A conditional tense changes to a past tense:
We knew that he would arrive/would be arriving about six.
We knew that till he arrived nothing would be done.
But when when introduces a noun clause it can be followed by a future or conditional tense:
He said, ’When will the train get in?’ =
He asked when the train would get in. ”
301
, •••*&
y
34 Reason, result, Concession, comparison, time
Clauses with since (see also 187-8)
In clauses since is usually followed by perfect tenses (but see 188): They’ve moved house twice since they got married or Since they got married, they’if moved house twice. He said he ’d lived in a tent since his house burnt down. It’s ages since I sailed/have sailed a boat, I haven’t sailed a boat since I left college.
Clauses with after
In clauses after is often followed by perfect tenses: After/When he had rung off I remembered … After/When you ’ve finished with it, hang it up.
hardly/scarcely . . . when, no sooner . . . than (see also 45) The performance had hardly begun when tht lights went out or Hardly had the performance begun when the lights went out.
scarcely could replace hardly here but is less usual.
He had no sooner drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy or No sooner had he drunk the coffee than he began to feel drowsy. He no sooner earns any money than he spends it or Immediately he earns any money he spends it. (more colloquial) Note also the sooner . . . the sooner:
Tht sooner we start, the sooner we ’II be there.
302
**t A
. <il^¥. r
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